People’s
Forum
“Integration
of women in the peace process”
University
of Jaffna
8-9th
Feb., 2003
War can have effects not only on individual women, but also on their family, extended family, group, community, village and wider society.
An increased
vulnerability in women to develop psychiatric problems during war and civil
violence has been reported. In London General practices during World War 11,
their was a preponderance of women in the ratio of 2:1 (Female to Male) for
neurotic illness (Lewis, 1942). In Belfast, N. Ireland, a ratio of 3:1 (Female
to Male) was found for all psychiatric disorders and significantly the stress
of civil violence was the major or contributing factor in all patients (Lyons,
1979).
In Northern Sri Lanka
the male to female ratio for admission remained close to 1:1 from before the
war upto 1986. In developing countries of Asia and Africa preponderance of
males in the ratio of 1:2 (female to Male) is usual (Ihezue, 1986) while the
reverse is true of developed countries (Shepard et al, 1966). As discussed by
Prof. Ganesvaran and Rajarajeswaran (1983), the high rate of literacy (85%),
maybe an important factor influencing sex ratio in Jaffna, leading to an
awareness, acceptance and understanding of mental illness in females. It may
also reflect the sex ratio of the resident population due to the absence of
young males in the age group where mental illness is common (70% of the
mentally ill are from the 20- 44 year group). Some in this age group left seeking jobs and other opportunities abroad.
It was also this age group that joined the militants, were killed, migrated or
left the area out of fear, seeking asylum in foreign countries.
For all these reasons
the women were left behind to shoulder the responsibility of family, home and
keep the society functioning during this critical period (Sivachandran, 1994).
While men left their wives and children behind, women did not leave their
children or husband to emigrate or flee the area (with few exceptions in cases of Middle East housemaid jobs).
They were left to face the trauma of war all alone. They looked after their
families single-handedly (19,000 women headed households), filling in for the
absent male in what had been upto then, traditional male roles. They rode
bicycles in greater numbers, went to the shops, met and argued with
authorities, took their children to schools and temples, and generally ‘kept
the home fires burning’ during this crisis in our society. They were thus under
considerable stress and more vulnerable to breakdown. The sex ratio of
admission tilted even further towards female preponderance as the war
continued, due to accentuation of this process (for example by 1991 the ratio
of female to male was 1.2:1 ). In the final analysis this may have been the price women had to pay to save our
society from collapse.
Of the types of war
related psychiatric problems manifested by women, the commonest is somatization.
Often the physical complaints of heaviness in the head, pressure on the chest,
difficulty in breathing (“perumuchu”), inability (“elamai”)
appear to be cultural idioms of distress reflecting the excessive burden of
responsibilities and work the women face. Other problems are depression
following loss of loved ones (Grief), property, dignity, virginity etc.;
anxiety and PTSD.
Due to close and strong bonds and cohesiveness in nuclear and extended families in our cultures, the families tend to function and respond to external threat or trauma as a unit rather than as individual members. Thus the family tends to think, feel, experience and respond together. When an event happens, the family faces it together as a unit. They share the experience and perceive the event in a particular way. Thus it may be more appropriate to talk in terms of family dynamics in our culture rather than of individual personalities.
During times of traumatic experiences, the family will come together with solidarity to face the threat as a unit and provide mutual support and protection. In time the family will act to define and interpret the traumatic event, give it structure and assign a common meaning, as well as evolve strategies to cope with the stress. Due to the ongoing war, the extended and nuclear family systems have been weakened or shattered due to displacement, separation, migration, death, detention, disappearance etc. of the members. The traditional family unit as the basic social institution has barely survived but its function has been irrevocably changed by the chronic conflict. The cohesiveness and traditional relationships are no longer the same. The role of the mother has undergone momentous change with increasing non-traditional responsibilities, activities and "liberation".
Absence of members of the family
due to death, ‘disappearance, injury or
displacement will create infallible gaps in the functioning of the family unit.
The uncertainty or grief about the missing member will add to the maladaptive
family dynamics that will ensue. The loss of the essential unifying role of the
missing member can cause disruption and disharmony within the family. A common situation is where the father has been
detained, ‘disappeared’ or killed but the family members are not sure of his
fate. They are caught in a `conspiracy of silence' where further inquiries may
lead to more problems for the father were he still alive and the mother may not
be able to share the truth with the child.
The mother has to adapt to all the negative implications of being a
'widow' in this society. Having the mother share her fears and feelings with
the child can be helpful. This is particularly difficult for a family where the
male has been ‘disappeared’ by the Tamil militants. Here the social situation
compels the remaining members to keep silent and makes it extremely difficult for them to receive social support.
They often have to suppress the memory of the person altogether.
In
the Jaffna peninsula, there are currently, 19,090 female-headed households. The
effect on the family, the widow (Kumerandran et al., 1998) and the children has been immense. A study assessed the impact of displacement
in the North on functioning of the family system (Jeyanthy et al., 1993).
Psychological disturbances particularly depressive symptoms were much more
common in displaced families than in those living in their own homes.
Disturbances in family dynamics particularly disputes and quarreling between
father and mother were attributed to economic stress, lack of privacy and
interference of others in over crowded camps.
Some
women have also joined the militants. One factor inducing them to leave society, was the tight control, domestic
life and bleak future they faced. Joining the militants was a liberating act,
promising them more freedom and power (Trawick, 1999; Balasingham, 2001). In
some cases, the family actively encouraged their daughter(s) to join when their
poor socio-economic state did not allow them to put by a good dowry for their
daughters.
Tamil
society had always suppressed women into a subservient position. Modern
education starting in the colonial period had loosened this to some extent and
some women managed to get free. However, it was the war that has had a liberating
role for women.
The war has had a tremendous impact on the community or village. During the current war whole communities or villages have been targeted, destroying whole village and its way of life and environment. The village traditions, structures and institutions that were the foundations and framework for the their daily life have been irrevocably changed (Council of NGO’s, 1998; National Peace Council & Marga, 2001).
One can mention the systemic attacks on all the Tamil villages in the Trincomalee District which eventually displaced all of them into the city or to other districts. Another example is the Moslems of the North. Apart from direct attacks, whole villages of all three communities have been disrupted, displaced and uprooted due to the ongoing conflict. One terrible example is the fishing community, another the farmers.
In the various rural communities, the village and its people, provided organic roots, a sustaining support system, nourishing environment and network of relationships. The village traditions, structures and institutions were the foundations and framework for the their daily life. In the Tamil tradition, a person’s identity was defined to a large extent by their village or uur of origin (Daniel, 1984). Their uur more or less placed the person in a particular matrix. All this has been destroyed by the war. Some villages have ceased to exist. Due to dislocation people have been separated so that the network of relationships, structures and institutions have been lost. Kai Erikson ( 1976) described it as a “loss of communality”. A very good example of the collective effect of displacement was the mass exodus from Valikamam in 1995. Even when people have returned to their villages, as it has happened in Jaffna in 1996, the village was not the same. Many were complete newcomers. The old structures and institutions were no longer functioning. Thus the protective environment provided by the uur is no longer there.
The cumulative effect on the community can be described as collective trauma, which goes beyond the individual. In fact, given the widespread nature of the traumatization due to war, the psychosocial reactions in the women may have come to be accepted as a normal part of life. But at the community level, manifestations of the trauma can be seen in the social processes and structures. This can be seen in the prevailing cultural coping strategies. Women have learned to survive under extraordinarily stressful conditions.
However, some coping strategies that may have had survival value during intense conflict may become maladaptive during reconstruction and peace. For example, the Tamil community had learned to be silent, non involved and stay in the background. They have developed a deep suspicion and mistrust. People have learned to simply attend to their immediate needs and survive to the next day. Gradually people have been made very passive and submissive.
The repeated displacements, disruption of livelihood have made people dependent on handouts. People have lost their self-reliance, earlier the hallmark of the Tamil. They have lost their motivation for advancement, progress or betterment. There is a general sense of resignation to fate. They have developed dependence on help from outside sources, on relief, on handouts. Further they have lost their trust in their fellow human beings as well as the world order. For example the Tamil people no longer trust the security forces, including the police. Their recent experiences have taught them otherwise. Thus instead of trust, respect for law and order, a belief in their legitimacy; there is fear, even terror. Women particularly face ill treatment at the hands of the law enforcing agencies like the police.
There has been a breakdown in social ethics and morals. Particularly marked is the increase in child sexual abuse in females. Even adult females have faced rape and other forms of sexual violence and harassment. There is a noticeable increase in domestic violence, seen in other post conflict situations around the world.
As described above, the wide spread problem of collective traumatization is best approached through community level interventions. Further, Community based approaches will enable one to reach a larger population as well as undertake preventive and promotional public mental health activities at the same time(Somasundaram,1998). In these circumstances it may be more meaningful to look at how the community as a whole has responded, how the community coped, and what we can do at the collective level (Somasundaram, 1996). For example, it may be more beneficial to consider strengthening and rebuilding the family and village structures, as well as finding a common meaning for the immense suffering than to treat individual traumatization per se.
Psychoeducation about trauma and special problems for women for the general public can be done through the media, pamphlets and popular lectures. A pamphlet for this purpose has been prepared in Tamil by Shantiam.
Training of grass root community level workers in basic mental health knowledge and skills is the easiest way of reaching a large population. They in turn would increase general awareness and disseminate the knowledge as well as do preventive and promotional work. The majority of minor mental health problems in women could be managed by community level workers and others referred to mental health professionals. Primary Health Workers including doctors, medical assistants, nurses, Family Health Workers; school teachers; village resources like the village headman (G.S.), elder, traditional healer, priests, monks and nuns; Governmental, Non Governmental Organization (NGO), volunteer relief and refugee camp workers are ideal community level workers for training. Trauma and mental health should become part of the normal curricula of health staff and teachers. A manual based on the WHO/UNHCR (1996) booklet, “Mental Health of Refugees”, adapted to the Tamil cultural context (Mental Health in the Tamil Community) with a special chapter devoted to problems in women, is being used to train a group of trainers (TOT). They will in turn train community level workers. In this way the necessary knowledge and skill can be spread to a wide population. A referral system where more severe problems can be referred for more specialized care with a multidisciplinary team consisting of female counsellors, clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, relaxation and massage therapists; drama, art etc. , has been established. Teaching of the culturally appropriate relaxation exercises like yoga to large groups in the community and as part of the curricula in schools can be both preventive and promotive of mental health.
Indigenous coping strategies that have helped the local population to survive should be encouraged. Culturally mediated protective factors like rituals and ceremonies should be strengthened.
Social attitudes can influence how traumatized women are treated, their response and eventual recovery. Cultures and villages have their own rituals and traditional functions to deal with trauma. Funeral rites like eddu chelavu, anthyetty, andu thuvasam, thuvasam and similar anniversary observance are powerful social mechanisms to deal with grief and loss. The gathering together of relations, friends and the community is an important social process to share, work through and release deep emotions, define and come to terms with what has happened and finally integrate the traumatic experience into social reality. In addition to funerals, religious and temple rites, cultural festivals, dramas, musical fares, exhibitions and other programs, meetings and social gatherings provide the opportunity for people to discuss, construct meaning, share and assimilate traumatic events. In war, when due to the disturbed situation these rituals are not possible or improperly performed, the trauma is never fully accepted or put to rest, as in the cases of "disappearances” where there is no finality about death. Patricia Lawrence (1998) has brought out the psychosocial value of the traditional oracle practice of “vakuu choluthal” in Batticaloa, particularly in cases of disappearances, where the families are told what has happened to the disappeared person in a socially supportive environment. In cases of detention by the security forces the relatives may take vows (nethi kadan)at Temples to various Gods which they will fulfill if the person is released. Religious festivals, folk singing and dancing as well as leisure activities can be ways of meeting, finding support and expressing emotions. Ideally the social processes should work to promote feelings of belonging and participation, where the group is able to give meaning to what has happened, adapt to the new situation, and determine their future.
Women need rest from their increased responsibilities. Community support should be mobilized to relieve women and give them rest , even for few hours. For example younger girls and women can help with the household chores and child rearing responsibilities. In view of the added responsibilities women face, they should be given preference in government and public institutions, transport etc.
The dangers of 'imposing
aid' from outside has been well documented (Harrel-Bond, 1988). The prospect of
the complex machinery and politics of international aid agencies, UN
organizations, donors, NGO's, etc., descending on the helpless Tamil community
to swamp and trample all over her traditional beliefs and life, with western
ideas of 'aggressive development' and 'progress' would appear inevitable. In the long-term this 'invasion' and
imposition of 'modern' socio-economic processes may prove more deadly to the
community than the war itself!
In developing an overall
integrated scheme for rehabilitation of the Tamil community, a systems oriented
approach, taking into account the
many interacting subsystems like the individual, family, community, cultural
ethos, socio-economic conditions, ecological balance, political forces,
available resources, existing structures, and sources of help from outside
would be best. What needs to be stressed here is that such a design include due
consideration for the psychological processes that promote individual, family
and social healing , recovery and integration. Special attention has to be
given to the needs of women, be made gender sensitive. It is important that any
such programme take into account the wishes of the local women concerned, that
they be give an active and deciding role rather than a dependent, ‘victims’
role, as it promotes their overall sense of participation and thus their
eventual psychological recovery. For
without mental health being established first or concurrently, development and
reconstruction efforts may not be of much benefit, except for the political and
business interests as it will merely be
for passive recipients with no motivation or interest in their own destiny.
To avoid this , emergent
self-help groups and local leadership should be encouraged to resume
traditional and habitual patterns of behaviour, re-establish social networks
and community functioning at the grass root level (Raphael, 1986). The local
skills and resources have to be tapped and utilized, if the community is to
gain a sense of accomplishment and fulfillment in the reconstruction
process. The constriction in cognitive
functioning under the oppressive circumstances of war noted above will have to
be released. The creative spirit within the community will have to be rekindled
if this community is to rise from the ashes. New solutions, paradigms,
inspirations and enthusiasm will have to be encouraged. Under the present
totalitarian political culture, creative thinking will be suppressed. Rather we
will see stereotyped, rigid and uniform ways of thinking and looking at the
world. Avenues for expression of ideas, for the independent and not the
engineered voice of people to be heard, an atmosphere conducive to open and
free discussion will have to be created. We have seen some women from Jaffna
University and elsewhere writing poetry and creating other forms of artistic
expression, but soon suppressed. For example Selvy from the University of
Jaffna won a International award for her poetry but was killed. Similarly
Rajani Thiranagama was killed thought she wrote and portrayed in Drama the problems of women during this
war.
Provision for the
non-partisan cultural working through of the shared traumatic experience in the
form of periodic reminders of the loss and reiteration of its meaning, and of
the heroism of those who suffered expressed in media, arts, public works,
monuments, special museums & occasions of public mourning have been found
to be useful in countries ravaged by civil war (Kinston & Rosser,1974). For
example the destroyed Jaffna library should have been left as a historic
monument to what happened, while a new, modern one could have been built close
by. Community gatherings, meetings and religious ceremonies will allow for
communal release of feeling; review and coming to terms with the collective trauma; socially define and
interpret their experiences, as well as re-establishing social links and
planning for the future.
Women can benefit from being taught basic social skills
and specific crafts to help them find employment and integrate themselves back
into society . In addition, occupational training, by structuring time and
channeling physical activity into satisfying goals helps the individual regain
her sense of control and mastery, her worthiness and usefulness and thus
establish her self-respect and self-esteem. In the long-term, occupational
skills are empowering and produce self-sufficiency. Such training can be particularly useful for poor widows whose
husbands had been killed in the war.
Special programmes will have to be developed for women, landmine victims, and so on. Women, particularly widows will benefit from group sessions, individual counselling when necessary, rehabilitation programmes that should include education, vocational training, income generating projects, loans, housing etc. that is tailored to their needs. Networking with other NGO’s and government will help to offer integrated and holistic help. One such successful ul group for widows has been developed the PsychoSocial trainers from Shantiam at Savalkaddu.
Thus an important aspect of the treatment is to plan
for the final rehabilitation of the women and of the family. The plan will have to be individually
tailored to the needs of the woman and be therapeutic. Financial resources to help an individual
re-establish herself in society may be an essential step to her regaining her
self-esteem and self-respect. It may also be necessary to provide an initial
incentives for women to come forward for treatment. The Canadian funded
programme, “Kappaham”, seeks to
holistically help women affected by violence including domestic violence.
Artistic expression of emotions and trauma can be cathartic for women and the community as a whole. Art, drama, story telling, writing poetry or novels (testimony), singing, dancing, clay modeling, sculpturing etc. are very useful emotive methods.
Psychological and socio-dramas can go a long way in
creating awareness about trauma among the public and help traumatized women to
ventilate their emotions or seek treatment. A few such dramas like annai
idda thee have been produced in the North. The drama called Velvi thee looks
at the problem of rape by soldiers. The recent dance-drama, Yar Kollo
Sathurar, brings out the ethos of women caught in the ravages of war.
Obviously the best way to ensure social recovery
will be to stop the conflict altogether. The current peace process gives hope.
The international practice of introducing processes favouring conflict
reduction, resolution and if possible, reconciliation into rehabilitation
programmes and donor policy is a positive step in this direction.
One way to reverse (or sidestep) the processes
that led to the conflict, favoured by the international community, is to
initiate socio-economic development that does not discriminate against the
Tamils or any other minority. In fact, initially there may have to be
“assertive action” or positive discrimination in favour of the minorities to
set the balance right. Unfortunately, the Sri Lankan majoritarian political
developments have led to dominance by the Sinhalese in the State and other
sectors. Thus all rehabilitation and development efforts even by international
organizations such as the UN tend to perpetuate the same discriminatory
structures that led to the conflict in the first place as they have always
chosen and have been required to work through state structures. This is clearly
evident in the recent exercise to develop the Jaffna district after its
re-capture by the state forces in 1996. However, meaningful development did not
take place (Council of NGOO Jaffna District, 1998). This in turn has impaired
psychosocial healing. A completely radical restructuring of all developmental
and other national activities will have to take place if the way out of the
ethnic conflict is to be through socio-economic development. Fundamentally there will have be a change of
attitude towards a more ready acceptance of the equality of the ethnic groups,
particularly among the ruling elite. Sadly this is still to take place and thus
the continuation of the problem. However, many Tamils would feel that under the
existing circumstances, it may not be possible, to effect these attitudinal
changes and then the structural re-arrangements (inability or rather
unwillingness to implement the ‘official’ use of the Tamil language,
constitutional reforms, equal opportunity bill or the gross inequality in the
development of the South compared to North East) and only through a measure of
autonomy or separation can the Tamils regain equal opportunities to
development.
The media too has an important role to play in
any reconciliation process. It is no exaggeration to say that the media from
both sides of the ethnic divide have played a decisive role in creating and
sustaining the ethnic conflict by the biased and inflammatory reporting. The
deterioration in journalistic standards began in the late 50’s when the state
started interfering with freedom of the press. Currently we have the media
polarized into two ethnic camps dishing out very selective and biased, armchair
views (there are few exceptions). A radical change to investigative and
constructive journalism will have a very powerful positive effect on the ethnic
conflict.
A big
problem that has and will impede any reconciliation or rapprochement from the
Tamil side is the existence of very a
“closed mind” among Tamils. Traditionally, the Tamils have had a very tightly
controlled, closed society, whether this is at the family, group, village or
regional level. The social pressures to conform, consent and speak in one voice
have been tremendous. Thus there is no real tradition of alternative views,
dissent, freedom etc. particularly in relation to sensitive, political and
public issues that affects the group as a whole. The mechanisms are largely
unconscious, the social processes work to internalize the control. With the
advent of violence and the militants these processes have been intensified. The
Tamil organizations and media also
operate towards creating a single view, seeing
only one side of the problem, criticizing only one party (invariably the
state or security forces) with a general paranoia. Somehow this stifling hold
has to be broken and some space created for alternate views, leadership and
initiatives. Only then can the creative spirit of the Tamils be reawakened to
find new solutions. Difficult as this may be the International community and
their representatives on the ground, the INGO’s and UN bodies, can foster this
process by capacity building, promoting and protecting emerging local
leadership and generally creating a climate for a more broad based activity and
gender equality.
We have
to create a “culture of peace” by
social peace building. Women are ideal for this role as naturally they are more
nurturant than men who are more prone to violence and war. Women know how to
solve problems in a non-violent way. The peace process is very fragile. If we
leave it to the leaders they may break it as they see fit (according to their
perceptions or interests).Women have been left out of the peace
negotiations. In my opinion, if the
negotiations are left entirely to women, there is more chance that enduring
peace will be found.
Obviously
there is a general yearning for peace. This has to come through. Community
level peace building activities have to be begun. Women can be put in the
forefront of these activities. The mode
of thinking and acting has to change from a conflict-habituated system of
suspicions, grievances, ethnocentrism, violent solutions and confrontation to a
peace system with give and take, accommodation, flexibility, forgiveness,
non-violence and a wider world view. A
fixed belligerent posture should not be engineered or orchestrated but a
creative response should to allowed to grow independently and spontaneously
from below. Only then can genuine peace be sustained.
Healing of memories and truth commissions along the lines done in
South Africa will be very helpful. Many have undergone untold horrors which
have been never accepted or recognized publicly. But before this can be
successful, there has to be a basic change in attitude. In the South people
will have accept the existence of the problem of minorities and the acknowledge
the suffering they have been through. In the North, opening up of political
space, tolerance of other views,
acceptance of plurality and sharing of power is needed if the Tamil community
is to come out of this situation, grow and develop toward a better future.
In many post-war situations around the world, the continuing role of combatants have been an immense social problem. Often they have found it difficult to re-integrate back into civil society, while others become marginalized from the mainstream of society. They feel unwanted, rejected and unappreciated to develop frustration and resentment. Many develop chronic psychosocial problems like Malignant PTSD or DESNOS, and hostile or suicidal behaviour. Thus any peace settlement should give priority to the process of demobilization. Specific arrangements should be made for the rehabilitation and reintegration of women militants or soldiers. Particularly the problems they will face in coming back into a conservative society and marriage will have to be addressed. They will need appropriate medical and psychological care. Opportunity structures in the form of education, vocational training, jobs, positions and function in society commensurate with their previous roles in the military or militants as the case may be are needed. They will need social recognition and respect for the sacrifices they have made.
Prof. Daya Somasundaram teaches at the Faculty of
Medicine, University of Jaffna.